Models of Learning
Page Name=ExpModels
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Models of Learning
- Guided Instruction
- Instructional Systems Design
- Cognitive Scaffolding
- Experiential Learning
- Constructivist Learning Models
- Problem-Based Learning
- Case-Based Learning
- Anchored Instruction
- Research-Based Learning
- Conversational Framework
- Collaborative Learning
- Cognitive Apprenticeship
- Situated Learning
- Critical Reflection
- Dialogue, Argumentation
16/10/06: This page replaces ExpMBASIntro. It is linked to/from both ExpTeacher and ExpLobasIntro.)
Each section will have a brief overview and links to information about the underlying model/theory -- e.g. from the TIP database.
Some of these models are associated with specific theories of learning (there are links to further information if you're interested in these); others have more pragmatic origins.
Guided Instruction
Guided instruction supports learners' progressive acquisition of component skills or concepts, through sequenced routines of organised activity with feedback. It's associated with the term 'drill and practice' and also lies at the heart of many early computer-based training programs. A variant of guided instruction is Instructional Systems Design.
Typically, the teacher takes the role of content expert or coach/trainer, interacting with students through the following types of activity sequence:
- Acquire Content Knowledge, Skills
- Acquire Practical Skills Link to exact sequence later
Metacognitive learning activities are carried out by the teacher.
Links
- Example sequences illustrating this model of learning
- Further information about this model of learning
Top of page | Learning Activities page | Sandpit page
Instructional Systems Design
Abbreviated to ISD, this is a variant of Guided Instruction. However, in addition it lays emphasis on:
i) Hierarchical analysis of the domain into concepts or tasks, and
ii) Identification of a separate instructional technique for each component.
Typically, the teacher takes the role of content expert or coach/trainer, interacting with students through the following types of activity sequence:
- Acquire Content Knowledge, Skills
- Acquire Practical Skills Link to exact sequence later
Metacognitive learning activities are carried out by the teacher.
Links
- Example sequences illustrating this model of learning
- Further information about this model of learning
Refs here are to Gagne
Top of page | Learning Activities page | Sandpit page
Cognitive Scaffolding
In cognitive scaffolding, the focus is on challenging and developing students’ cognitive skills through progressively more challenging conceptual tasks. There may be opportunities for collaboration and debate.
Typically, the teacher takes the role of tutor, interacting with students through activity sequences aimed at the acquisition of cognitive skills. Link to exact sequence later
Metacognitive learning activities are carried out by the teacher.
Links
- Example sequences illustrating this model of learning
- Further information about this model of learning
I think this is Piaget
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Experiential Learning
Experiential learning focuses on active learning, either through individual experimentation or through peer exploration and discussion. It is derived from Kolb's learning cycle More on this -- plus diagram?
Typically, the teacher takes the role of tutor-facilitator or supervisor of practical work/research, interacting with students through the following types of activity sequence:
- Develop Conceptions: Experimental Methods
- Develop Conceptions: Experiential Methods
- Develop Conceptions: Critical Methods Link to exact sequences later
Initially, metacognitive learning activities are directed by the teacher. However, the students may progressively assume responsibility for their own planning, reflection etc.
Links
- Example sequences illustrating this model of learning
- Further information about this model of learning
Top of page | Learning Activities page | Sandpit page
Constructivist Learning Models
Constructivism comes in many guises. However, most (if not all) focus on investigative activities by students working within an environment of tools, resources and services, often using modelling tools, simulations and/or games. Although the teacher has overall control over the content, students can be relatively autonomous within the learning environment, and in some cases may be able to set their own goals for specific tasks. The teacher also provides opportunities for students to discuss, and reflect on, the findings from their investigative tasks.
'Constructivist' roles for the teacher include tutor, tutor-facilitator. Activity sequences implementing this model are those associated with the development of concepts and cognitive skills, e.g.:
- Develop Conceptions: Experimental Methods
- Develop Conceptions: Experiential Methods
- Develop Conceptions: Critical Methods
- Acquire Cognitive Skills (This sequence has less provision for student autonomy.) Link to exact sequences later
Links
- Example sequences illustrating this model of learning
- Further information about this model of learning
Top of page | Learning Activities page | Sandpit page
Problem-Based Learning
Students investigate specific problems and issues with access to a range of relevant content resources. They may have a variable degree of control over the problems set. A variant of PBL is Anchored Instruction.
Within PBL, the teacher tends to act as tutor-facilitator, interacting with students through activity sequences aimed at developing their conceptions through critical methods.
Metacognitive learning activities tend to be directed by the teacher, although they may include peer feedback and discussion.
Links
- Example sequences illustrating this model of learning
- Further information about this model of learning
See list of refs on printed sheet
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Case-Based Learning
Students develop their own conceptions of a subject area through exploring exemplary cases. They may have a variable degree of control over the tasks that they carry out. A variant of this model is Anchored Instruction.
Within PBL, the teacher tends to act as tutor-facilitator, interacting with students through activity sequences aimed at developing their conceptions through experiential methods.
Metacognitive learning activities tend to be directed by the teacher, although they may include peer feedback and discussion.
Links
- Example sequences illustrating this model of learning
- Further information about this model of learning
Top of page | Learning Activities page | Sandpit page
Anchored Instruction
This is Case-based or problem-based learning that revolves around a pre-prepared 'anchor', typically a video, story or narrative case study. Anchored Instruction is often used in language-learning or mathematics. The anchor is crucial to the process, and is typically produced as part of a teaching pack.
The teacher supports students' exploration and discussion through taking the role of tutor-facilitator. An activity sequence in anchored instruction would typically be similar to a sequence for developing conceptions through experiential methods, with the following extensions:
- Teacher provides an 'anchor' (story, video, play, case study).
- Students identify and describe problem(s) presented in ‘anchor.’
- Students identify and share resources for solving problem(s).
- Students apply knowledge to problem(s).
- Students present solution(s).
Metacognitive learning activities are directed by the teacher but may be shared with other students, especially in discussion.
Links
- Example sequences illustrating this model of learning
- Further information about this model of learning
http://tip.psychology.org/anchor.html
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Research-Based Learning
'Research-based learning' (RBL) is a general term for student-directed investigations, typically in higher-level learning. It includes models such as exploratory learning and inquiry-based learning (IBL). Students themselves may progressively define the key question, hypothesis or issue, together with their method of investigation.
The teacher thus tends to take a back-seat, facilitating or supervisory role, giving students advice on relevant investigative processes and protocols; modelling and guiding students' work; suggesting alternative courses of action where necessary; and providing formative feedback on processes and findings.
RBL and related models of learning can be implemented through the following type(s) of activity sequence:
- Develop Conceptions: Experimental Methods
- Develop Conceptions: Experiential Methods
- Develop Conceptions: Critical Methods
- Professional or Creative Development Link to exact sequences later
Initially, metacognitive learning activities may be directed by the teacher. However, the students will progressively assume responsibility for their own planning, reflection etc.
Links
- Example sequences illustrating this model of learning
- Further information about this model of learning
http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/services/cap/landt/rbl/
Potted intro to IBL is at the CILASS site http://www.shef.ac.uk/cilass/ibl.html. Good link from there to an online resource (Irish) is http://www.aishe.org/readings/2005-2/contents.html
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Conversational Framework
Needs writing properly: Through the learning dialogue, students’ conceptions are progressively challenged and developed. Teaching content is adapted to students’ needs.
Specific features/variations to be built into the activity sequence:
- Set task goal
- Describe concept
- Student describes concept AND/OR student performs task
- Re-describe concept in light of student action or description
- Adapt task goal in light of action or description
- Repeat steps 2-5 until student and teacher descriptions co-incide.
Note that a 'conversation' may be carried out with a peer mentor (or mentors) rather than the teacher. However, the dialogic partner must be more knowledgeable with respect to the topic being studied.
The teacher may adopt a number of different roles, including content expert, tutor or tutor-facilitator, according to the changing demands of the 'conversation.' Types of activity sequence which are particularly amenable to a conversational structure are:
- Acquire Content Knowledge, Skills
- Develop Conceptions: Critical Methods
- Acquire Cognitive Skills Link to exact sequences later
The metacognitive learning activities tend to be directed by the teacher, but they may be shared with the student(s).
Strength of the CF: has been used as basis for planning the deployment of technol into teaching and learning, according to the conversational 'moves' that a teacher wishes to support using particular technological artefacts.
Links
- Example sequences illustrating this model of learning
- Further information about this model of learning
Laurillard and Pask: need link to online description of Diana's framework
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Collaborative Learning
Collaborative learning, in particular computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL), is less a theory than a recommendation for effective learning. Students work in pairs or groups towards an agreed learning goal, and each person's contribution to the collective process and outcome is assessed on either an individual or a collective basis.
Key features of collaborative learning are:
- Students progressively negotiate and agree the learning goals for themselves.
- Students allocate tasks among themselves.
- Students agree when their goals have been reached.
- There is a strong focus on peer evaluation and review and, to varying extents, on peer-assessment.
The teacher operates largely in a support capacity: viz. supporting negotiation, team working and peer evaluation, as well as facilitating students' access to the relevant resources, facilities and tools. S/he thus takes on the role of social facilitator or mentor.
The types of activity sequence into which collaborative learning can be embedded are:
- Develop Conceptions: Experimental Methods
- Develop Conceptions: Experiential Methods
- Develop Conceptions: Critical Methods
- Acquire Social, Communication Skills
- Professional or Creative Development Link to exact sequences later
Links
- Example sequences illustrating this model of learning
- Further information about this model of learning
Dillenbourg et al.?
Cognitive Apprenticeship
Brown, Collins etc. Use material from PhD thesis
Learning tasks are... Learning takes place through....
Tutors remain responsible for feedback and assessment (though self-assessment is progressively encouraged).
Teacher role: content expert, social facilitator (in activities where intended learning outcomes include developing communication skills) and mentor.
This model can be implemented through the following type(s) of activity sequence:
Acquire Content Knowledge, Skills | Acquire Cognitive Skills | Acquire Social, Communication Skills Link to exact sequence later
Also underpins experimental/experiential/critical concept development sequences, where teacher is required to model processes and support students' progressive independence in task execution.
Specific features/variations to be built into the activity sequence:
- Student introduced to context
- Student observes activity in context
- Opportunities for discussion and reflection with peers
- Student participates peripherally in activity
- Opportunities for feedback, discussion and reflection
- Student participates more centrally in activity
- Repeat 5-6: student becomes progressively enculturated in practice of the community
- Feedback focusing on process and authenticity.
Links
- Example sequences illustrating this model of learning
- Further information about this model of learning
Top of page | Learning Activities page | Sandpit page
Situated Learning
Include ref. to LPP
Learning is situated in an authentic work-based or learning community, of which the student may be a 'novice' member. See also Critical Reflection.
Learning tasks are negotiated in situ. Learning takes place through informal observation and participation rather than formal instruction.
Tutors remain responsible for feedback and assessment (though self-assessment is progressively encouraged).
Teacher roles: supervisor/mentor -- but suspect that may also provide some more structured exeriences to facilitate concept development through 'watered down' sequences using experimental, experiential or critical methods.
This model can be implemented through the following type(s) of activity sequence:
Professional or Creative Development Link to exact sequence later
Maybe also concept development sequences.
Specific features/variations to be built into the activity sequence:
- Student introduced to context
- Student observes activity in context
- Opportunities for discussion and reflection with peers
- Student participates peripherally in activity
- Opportunities for feedback, discussion and reflection
- Student participates more centrally in activity
- Repeat 5-6: student becomes progressively enculturated in practice of the community
- Feedback focusing on process and authenticity.
Links
- Example sequences illustrating this model of learning
- Further information about this model of learning
Top of page | Learning Activities page | Sandpit page
Critical Reflection
Found in CPD, WBL
A form of situated learning, takes place in an authentic work-based or learning community, of which the student is typically already a member. Differences from SL are...
Learning tasks are negotiated in situ. Learning takes place through informal observation and participation rather than formal Tasks arise in the context of an established work role and are assessed by the student with the support of a supervisor/mentor.
This model can be implemented through the following type(s) of activity sequence:
Develop Conceptions: Critical Methods | Acquire Social, Communication Skills | Professional or Creative Development Link to exact sequence later
Specific features/variations to be built into the activity sequence:
- Learning goals negotiated with student
- Give access to relevant professional resources and/or mentoring
- Clarify alternative courses of action
- Support the process of critical reflection
- Support the development of specific work-related skills.
- Support self-evaluation and forward planning.
- Encourage and recognise achievements
Links
- Example sequences illustrating this model of learning
- Further information about this model of learning
Top of page | Learning Activities page | Sandpit page
Dialogue, Argumentation
Students are encouraged to develop their own opinions, values and points of view through debate with peers.
Specific features/variations to be built into the activity sequence:
- Agree key topics and issues for discussion
- Agree roles and rules of debate
- Support and moderate discussion as appropriate
- Model appropriate behaviour in discussion forum
- Capture and re-present key learning events
- Evaluate and reflect on process
- Integrative activities and moderating roles may be directed by the tutor or progressively by students.
Teacher role: tutor-facilitator or social facilitator
This model can be implemented through the following type(s) of activity sequence:
Develop Conceptions: Critical Methods | Acquire Social, Communication Skills Link to exact sequence later
Links
- Example sequences illustrating this model of learning
- Further information about this model of learning
