= Models of Learning = ''** Page Name=ExpModels **'' [[PageOutline]] ''** 16/10/06: This page replaces ExpMBASIntro. It is linked to/from both ExpTeacher and ExpLobasIntro.) **'' ''** Each section will have a brief overview and links to information about the underlying model/theory -- e.g. from the TIP database. **'' Some of these models are associated with specific theories of learning (there are links to further information if you're interested in these); others have more pragmatic origins. ---- == Guided Instruction == Guided instruction supports learners' progressive acquisition of component skills or concepts, through sequenced routines of organised activity with feedback. It's associated with the term 'drill and practice' and also lies at the heart of many early computer-based training programs. A variant of guided instruction is [wiki:ExpModels#InstructionalSystemsDesign Instructional Systems Design]. Typically, the teacher takes the role of [wiki:ExpTeacher content expert] or [wiki:ExpTeacher coach/trainer], interacting with students through the following types of activity sequence: * [wiki:ExpLobasIntro Acquire Content Knowledge, Skills] * [wiki:ExpLobasIntro Acquire Practical Skills] ''** Link to exact sequence later **'' [wiki:ExpActMetacog Metacognitive learning activities] are carried out by the teacher. '''Links''' * Example sequences illustrating this model of learning * Further information about this model of learning [wiki:ExpMBASIntro#ModelBasedActivitySequences Top of page] | [wiki:ExpActivities Learning Activities page] | [wiki:ExpStructure Sandpit page] ---- == Instructional Systems Design == Abbreviated to ISD, this is a variant of [wiki:ExpModels#GuidedInstruction Guided Instruction]. However, in addition it lays emphasis on:[[BR]] i) Hierarchical analysis of the domain into concepts or tasks, and [[BR]] ii) Identification of a separate instructional technique for each component. Typically, the teacher takes the role of [wiki:ExpTeacher content expert] or [wiki:ExpTeacher coach/trainer], interacting with students through the following types of activity sequence: * [wiki:ExpLobasIntro Acquire Content Knowledge, Skills] * [wiki:ExpLobasIntro Acquire Practical Skills] ''** Link to exact sequence later **'' [wiki:ExpActMetacog Metacognitive learning activities] are carried out by the teacher. '''Links''' * Example sequences illustrating this model of learning * Further information about this model of learning ''** Refs here are to Gagne **'' [wiki:ExpMBASIntro#ModelBasedActivitySequences Top of page] | [wiki:ExpActivities Learning Activities page] | [wiki:ExpStructure Sandpit page] ---- == Cognitive Scaffolding == In cognitive scaffolding, the focus is on challenging and developing students’ cognitive skills through progressively more challenging conceptual tasks. There may be opportunities for collaboration and debate. Typically, the teacher takes the role of [wiki:ExpTeacher tutor], interacting with students through activity sequences aimed at the [wiki:ExpLobasIntro acquisition of cognitive skills]. ''** Link to exact sequence later **'' [wiki:ExpActMetacog Metacognitive learning activities] are carried out by the teacher. '''Links''' * Example sequences illustrating this model of learning * Further information about this model of learning ''** I think this is Piaget **'' [wiki:ExpMBASIntro#ModelBasedActivitySequences Top of page] | [wiki:ExpActivities Learning Activities page] | [wiki:ExpStructure Sandpit page] ---- == Experiential Learning == Experiential learning focuses on ''active'' learning, either through individual experimentation or through peer exploration and discussion. It is derived from Kolb's learning cycle ''** More on this -- plus diagram? **'' Typically, the teacher takes the role of [wiki:ExpTeacher tutor-facilitator or supervisor of practical work/research], interacting with students through the following types of activity sequence: * [wiki:ExpLobasIntro Develop Conceptions: Experimental Methods] * [wiki:ExpLobasIntro Develop Conceptions: Experiential Methods] * [wiki:ExpLobasIntro Develop Conceptions: Critical Methods] ''** Link to exact sequences later **'' Initially, [wiki:ExpActMetacog metacognitive learning activities] are directed by the teacher. However, the students may progressively assume responsibility for their own planning, reflection etc. '''Links''' * Example sequences illustrating this model of learning * Further information about this model of learning [wiki:ExpMBASIntro#ModelBasedActivitySequences Top of page] | [wiki:ExpActivities Learning Activities page] | [wiki:ExpStructure Sandpit page] ---- == Constructivist Learning Models == Constructivism comes in many guises. However, most (if not all) focus on investigative activities by students working within an environment of tools, resources and services, often using modelling tools, simulations and/or games. Although the teacher has overall control over the content, students can be relatively autonomous within the learning environment, and in some cases may be able to set their own goals for specific tasks. The teacher also provides opportunities for students to discuss, and reflect on, the findings from their investigative tasks. 'Constructivist' roles for the teacher include [wiki:ExpTeacher tutor], [wiki:ExpTeacher tutor-facilitator]. Activity sequences implementing this model are those associated with the development of concepts and cognitive skills, e.g.: * [wiki:ExpLobasIntro Develop Conceptions: Experimental Methods] * [wiki:ExpLobasIntro Develop Conceptions: Experiential Methods] * [wiki:ExpLobasIntro Develop Conceptions: Critical Methods] * [wiki:ExpLobasIntro Acquire Cognitive Skills] (This sequence has less provision for student autonomy.) ''** Link to exact sequences later **'' '''Links''' * Example sequences illustrating this model of learning * Further information about this model of learning [wiki:ExpMBASIntro#ModelBasedActivitySequences Top of page] | [wiki:ExpActivities Learning Activities page] | [wiki:ExpStructure Sandpit page] ---- == Problem-Based Learning == Students investigate specific problems and issues with access to a range of relevant content resources. They may have a variable degree of control over the problems set. A variant of PBL is [wiki:ExpModels#AnchoredInstruction Anchored Instruction]. Within PBL, the teacher tends to act as [wiki:ExpTeacher tutor-facilitator], interacting with students through activity sequences aimed at [wiki:ExpLobasIntro developing their conceptions through critical methods]. [wiki:ExpActMetacog Metacognitive learning activities] tend to be directed by the teacher, although they may include peer feedback and discussion. '''Links''' * Example sequences illustrating this model of learning * Further information about this model of learning ''** See list of refs on printed sheet **'' [wiki:ExpMBASIntro#ModelBasedActivitySequences Top of page] | [wiki:ExpActivities Learning Activities page] | [wiki:ExpStructure Sandpit page] ---- == Case-Based Learning == Students develop their own conceptions of a subject area through exploring exemplary cases. They may have a variable degree of control over the tasks that they carry out. A variant of this model is [wiki:ExpModels#AnchoredInstruction Anchored Instruction]. Within PBL, the teacher tends to act as [wiki:ExpTeacher tutor-facilitator], interacting with students through activity sequences aimed at [wiki:ExpLobasIntro developing their conceptions through experiential methods]. [wiki:ExpActMetacog Metacognitive learning activities] tend to be directed by the teacher, although they may include peer feedback and discussion. '''Links''' * Example sequences illustrating this model of learning * Further information about this model of learning [wiki:ExpMBASIntro#ModelBasedActivitySequences Top of page] | [wiki:ExpActivities Learning Activities page] | [wiki:ExpStructure Sandpit page] ---- == Anchored Instruction == This is [wiki:ExpModels Case-based] or [wiki:ExpModels problem-based] learning that revolves around a pre-prepared 'anchor', typically a video, story or narrative case study. Anchored Instruction is often used in language-learning or mathematics. The anchor is crucial to the process, and is typically produced as part of a teaching pack. The teacher supports students' exploration and discussion through taking the role of [wiki:ExpTeacher tutor-facilitator]. An activity sequence in anchored instruction would typically be similar to a sequence for [wiki:ExpLobasIntro developing conceptions through experiential methods], with the following extensions: * Teacher provides an 'anchor' (story, video, play, case study). * Students identify and describe problem(s) presented in ‘anchor.’ * Students identify and share resources for solving problem(s). * Students apply knowledge to problem(s). * Students present solution(s). [wiki:ExpActMetacog Metacognitive learning activities] are directed by the teacher but may be shared with other students, especially in discussion. '''Links''' * Example sequences illustrating this model of learning * Further information about this model of learning http://tip.psychology.org/anchor.html [wiki:ExpMBASIntro#ModelBasedActivitySequences Top of page] | [wiki:ExpActivities Learning Activities page] | [wiki:ExpStructure Sandpit page] ---- == Research-Based Learning == 'Research-based learning' (RBL) is a general term for student-directed investigations, typically in higher-level learning. It includes models such as exploratory learning and inquiry-based learning (IBL). Students themselves may progressively define the key question, hypothesis or issue, together with their method of investigation. The teacher thus tends to take a back-seat, [wiki:ExpTeacher facilitating] or [wiki:ExpTeacher supervisory] role, giving students advice on relevant investigative processes and protocols; modelling and guiding students' work; suggesting alternative courses of action where necessary; and providing formative feedback on processes and findings. RBL and related models of learning can be implemented through the following type(s) of activity sequence: * [wiki:ExpLobasIntro Develop Conceptions: Experimental Methods] * [wiki:ExpLobasIntro Develop Conceptions: Experiential Methods] * [wiki:ExpLobasIntro Develop Conceptions: Critical Methods] * [wiki:ExpLobasIntro Professional or Creative Development] ''** Link to exact sequences later **'' Initially, [wiki:ExpActMetacog metacognitive learning activities] may be directed by the teacher. However, the students will progressively assume responsibility for their own planning, reflection etc. '''Links''' * Example sequences illustrating this model of learning * Further information about this model of learning http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/services/cap/landt/rbl/ ''** Potted intro to IBL is at the CILASS site http://www.shef.ac.uk/cilass/ibl.html. Good link from there to an online resource (Irish) is http://www.aishe.org/readings/2005-2/contents.html **''[[BR]] [wiki:ExpMBASIntro#ModelBasedActivitySequences Top of page] | [wiki:ExpActivities Learning Activities page] | [wiki:ExpStructure Sandpit page] ---- == Conversational Framework == ''** Needs writing properly: **'' Through the learning dialogue, students’ conceptions are progressively challenged and developed. Teaching content is adapted to students’ needs. Specific features/variations to be built into the activity sequence: * Set task goal * Describe concept * Student describes concept AND/OR student performs task * Re-describe concept in light of student action or description * Adapt task goal in light of action or description * Repeat steps 2-5 until student and teacher descriptions co-incide. Note that a 'conversation' may be carried out with a peer mentor (or mentors) rather than the teacher. However, the dialogic partner __must__ be more knowledgeable with respect to the topic being studied. The teacher may adopt a number of different roles, including [wiki:ExpTeacher content expert], [wiki:ExpTeacher tutor] or [wiki:ExpTeacher tutor-facilitator], according to the changing demands of the 'conversation.' Types of activity sequence which are particularly amenable to a conversational structure are: * [wiki:ExpLobasIntro Acquire Content Knowledge, Skills] * [wiki:ExpLobasIntro Develop Conceptions: Critical Methods] * [wiki:ExpLobasIntro Acquire Cognitive Skills] ''** Link to exact sequences later **'' The [wiki:ExpActMetacog metacognitive learning activities] tend to be directed by the teacher, but they may be shared with the student(s). Strength of the CF: has been used as basis for planning the deployment of technol into teaching and learning, according to the conversational 'moves' that a teacher wishes to support using particular technological artefacts. '''Links''' * Example sequences illustrating this model of learning * Further information about this model of learning ''** Laurillard and Pask: need link to online description of Diana's framework **'' [wiki:ExpMBASIntro#ModelBasedActivitySequences Top of page] | [wiki:ExpActivities Learning Activities page] | [wiki:ExpStructure Sandpit page] ---- == Collaborative Learning == Collaborative learning, in particular computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL), is less a theory than a recommendation for effective learning. Students work in pairs or groups towards an agreed learning goal, and each person's contribution to the collective process and outcome is assessed on either an individual or a collective basis. Key features of collaborative learning are: * Students progressively negotiate and agree the learning goals for themselves. * Students allocate tasks among themselves. * Students agree when their goals have been reached. * There is a strong focus on peer evaluation and review and, to varying extents, on peer-assessment. The teacher operates largely in a support capacity: viz. supporting negotiation, team working and peer evaluation, as well as facilitating students' access to the relevant resources, facilities and tools. S/he thus takes on the role of [wiki:ExpTeacher social facilitator] or [wiki:ExpTeacher mentor]. The types of activity sequence into which collaborative learning can be embedded are: * [wiki:ExpLobasIntro Develop Conceptions: Experimental Methods] * [wiki:ExpLobasIntro Develop Conceptions: Experiential Methods] * [wiki:ExpLobasIntro Develop Conceptions: Critical Methods] * [wiki:ExpLobasIntro Acquire Social, Communication Skills] * [wiki:ExpLobasIntro Professional or Creative Development] ''** Link to exact sequences later **'' '''Links''' * Example sequences illustrating this model of learning * Further information about this model of learning ''** Dillenbourg et al.? **'' [wiki:ExpMBASIntro#ModelBasedActivitySequences Top of page] | [wiki:ExpStructure Sandpit page] ---- == Cognitive Apprenticeship == ''** Brown, Collins etc. Use material from PhD thesis **'' Learning tasks are... Learning takes place through.... Tutors remain responsible for feedback and assessment (though self-assessment is progressively encouraged). Teacher role: [wiki:ExpTeacher content expert], [wiki:ExpTeacher social facilitator] (in activities where intended learning outcomes include developing communication skills) and [wiki:ExpTeacher mentor]. This model can be implemented through the following type(s) of activity sequence: [[BR]] [wiki:ExpLobasIntro Acquire Content Knowledge, Skills] | [wiki:ExpLobasIntro Acquire Cognitive Skills] | [wiki:ExpLobasIntro Acquire Social, Communication Skills] ''** Link to exact sequence later **'' [[BR]]Also underpins experimental/experiential/critical concept development sequences, where teacher is required to model processes and support students' progressive independence in task execution. Specific features/variations to be built into the activity sequence: * Student introduced to context * Student observes activity in context * Opportunities for discussion and reflection with peers * Student participates peripherally in activity * Opportunities for feedback, discussion and reflection * Student participates more centrally in activity * Repeat 5-6: student becomes progressively enculturated in practice of the community * Feedback focusing on process and authenticity. '''Links''' * Example sequences illustrating this model of learning * Further information about this model of learning [wiki:ExpMBASIntro#ModelBasedActivitySequences Top of page] | [wiki:ExpActivities Learning Activities page] | [wiki:ExpStructure Sandpit page] ---- == Situated Learning == ''** Include ref. to LPP **''[[BR]] Learning is situated in an authentic work-based or learning community, of which the student may be a 'novice' member. See also [wiki:ExpModels#CriticalReflection Critical Reflection]. Learning tasks are negotiated in situ. Learning takes place through informal observation and participation rather than formal instruction. Tutors remain responsible for feedback and assessment (though self-assessment is progressively encouraged). Teacher roles: [wiki:ExpTeacher supervisor/mentor] -- but suspect that may also provide some more structured exeriences to [wiki:ExpTeacher facilitate] concept development through 'watered down' sequences using experimental, experiential or critical methods. This model can be implemented through the following type(s) of activity sequence: [[BR]] [wiki:ExpLobasIntro Professional or Creative Development] ''** Link to exact sequence later **'' [[BR]]Maybe also concept development sequences. Specific features/variations to be built into the activity sequence: * Student introduced to context * Student observes activity in context * Opportunities for discussion and reflection with peers * Student participates peripherally in activity * Opportunities for feedback, discussion and reflection * Student participates more centrally in activity * Repeat 5-6: student becomes progressively enculturated in practice of the community * Feedback focusing on process and authenticity. '''Links''' * Example sequences illustrating this model of learning * Further information about this model of learning [wiki:ExpMBASIntro#ModelBasedActivitySequences Top of page] | [wiki:ExpActivities Learning Activities page] | [wiki:ExpStructure Sandpit page] ---- == Critical Reflection == Found in CPD, WBL A form of [wiki:ExpModels#SituatedLearning situated learning], takes place in an authentic work-based or learning community, of which the student is typically already a member. Differences from SL are... Learning tasks are negotiated in situ. Learning takes place through informal observation and participation rather than formal Tasks arise in the context of an established work role and are assessed by the student with the support of a [wiki:ExpTeacher supervisor/mentor]. This model can be implemented through the following type(s) of activity sequence: [[BR]] [wiki:ExpLobasIntro Develop Conceptions: Critical Methods] | [wiki:ExpLobasIntro Acquire Social, Communication Skills] | [wiki:ExpLobasIntro Professional or Creative Development] ''** Link to exact sequence later **'' Specific features/variations to be built into the activity sequence: * Learning goals negotiated with student * Give access to relevant professional resources and/or mentoring * Clarify alternative courses of action * Support the process of critical reflection * Support the development of specific work-related skills. * Support self-evaluation and forward planning. * Encourage and recognise achievements '''Links''' * Example sequences illustrating this model of learning * Further information about this model of learning [wiki:ExpMBASIntro#ModelBasedActivitySequences Top of page] | [wiki:ExpActivities Learning Activities page] | [wiki:ExpStructure Sandpit page] ---- == Dialogue, Argumentation == Students are encouraged to develop their own opinions, values and points of view through debate with peers. Specific features/variations to be built into the activity sequence: * Agree key topics and issues for discussion * Agree roles and rules of debate * Support and moderate discussion as appropriate * Model appropriate behaviour in discussion forum * Capture and re-present key learning events * Evaluate and reflect on process * Integrative activities and moderating roles may be directed by the tutor or progressively by students. Teacher role: [wiki:ExpTeacher tutor-facilitator] or [wiki:ExpTeacher social facilitator] This model can be implemented through the following type(s) of activity sequence: [[BR]] [wiki:ExpLobasIntro Develop Conceptions: Critical Methods] | [wiki:ExpLobasIntro Acquire Social, Communication Skills] ''** Link to exact sequence later **'' '''Links''' * Example sequences illustrating this model of learning * Further information about this model of learning [wiki:ExpMBASIntro#ModelBasedActivitySequences Top of page] | [wiki:ExpActivities Learning Activities page] | [wiki:ExpStructure Sandpit page]